Airport Markings & Signs

• Markings on runways are white
• Markings defining the landing area on a heliport are also white except for hospital heliports which use a red "H" on a white cross
• Markings for taxiways, areas not intended for use by aircraft (closed and hazardous areas), and holding positions (even if they are on a runway) are yellow

Runway Markings:

Runways Classification:

There are three types of runways, each with an associated level of markings: [ Figure 1 ]

Visual Runways:

• Visual runways are runways without an existing or planned instrument approach procedure
• Visual runways are marked with the runway number and a dashed runway centerline [ Figure 2 ]
• Visual runways may also include threshold markings if intended for international operations
• Aiming points may be included on runways 4,000' or longer used by jet aircraft

Non-Precision Runways:

• Non-precision runways are runways with at least one end having a non-precision approach procedure
• Non-precision runways do not incorporate an electric glide slope and the corresponding runway markings vary accordingly [ Figure 3 ]
• In many cases however, non-precision runways will look similar to visual runways

Precision Runways:

• Precision runways are used when at least one of the runways are served by non-visual precision approach aids such as an Instrument Landing System (ILS) or Precision Approach Radar (PAR) [ Figure 4 ]
• These types of runways typically provide some type of glide slope information, including what can be found on the non-precision runway the side stripes, touchdown zone markings, and fixed distance markings







Runway Designators:

• Since aircraft are affected by the wind during takeoffs and landings, runways are laid out according to the local prevailing winds
• Runways are identified by numbers that indicate the nearest 10° increment of the azimuth of the runway centerline [ Figure 5 ]
  • Example: 084° is marked 8
  • Example: 085° is marked 8 or 9
  • Example: 086° is marked 9
  • Example: 210° is marked 21
• This number becomes the runway's name, and is how it is referenced by Air Traffic Control (ATC) and other
• The opposite end of the runway is then marked with the reciprocal heading
  • Reciprocal heading is determined by adding or subtracting 180° from the runway heading
  • You must therefore add 180 to any runway 180 or below, and subtract 180 to anything 180 or above
    • Example: (using runway 26) 260° - 180° = 080° (runway 8)
    • Example: (using runway 8) 080° + 180° = 260° (runway 260)
  • If your answer comes out to be greater than 360, or negative, then you added when you should have subtracted or vice versa
• Parallel runways are designated with numbers but also as "L," "C," and/or "R" which stand for left, center, and/or right
  • Example: 21L, 21C, and/or 21R
• When there are only 2 parallel runways, the "center" is omitted and only "left" and "right" is used
• When multiple parallel runways at the same airport are separated by a large distance, such as by a central terminal or several terminals, the runways may be designated as non-parallel runways to avoid pilot confusion
• Note wind directions are reported in degrees magnetic, to provide an applicable reference to the runway direction

• Runway Centerline Marking:

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  • Runway centerline markings identify the center of the runway for guidance on takeoff and landing [ Figure 6 ]
  • Painted white in color
  • One centerline marking is 120' in length and the gap between markings is 80' giving 200' for a full set
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• Runway Aiming Point:

  • Aiming point markers serve as a visual target for landing aircraft [ Figure 7 ]
  • Consists of two broad white stripes located on each side of the runway, about 1,000' from the landing threshold
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• Runway Touchdown Zone Markings:

  

  • Thin white stripes identifying the touchdown zone for landing operations and are spaced in 500' (150m) increments [ Figure 8 ]
  • Three, two and then one thin striped symmetrical bars arranged in pairs on each side of runway centerline
  • For runways having touchdown zone markings on both ends, those pairs of markings which extend to within 900' (270m) of the midpoint between the thresholds are eliminated

• Runway Side Stripe Markings:

  • White lines identifying the edges of the runway provide visual contrast between runway and the abutting terrain or shoulders [ Figure 9 ]

• Runway Shoulder Markings:

  • Yellow lines may supplement runway side stripes to identify pavement areas adjacent to the runway sides that are not intended for use by aircraft

  Runway Threshold Markings:

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  • Runway threshold markings identify the beginning of the runway that is available for landing and come in two configurations:
    • They either consist of eight longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline, or the number of stripes is related to the runway width [ Figure 10 ]
  • When the stripes that correspond to the width of the runway:
    • 4 stripes = 60' wide
    • 6 stripes = 75' wide
    • 8 stripes = 100' wide
    • 12 stripes = 150' wide
    • 16 stripes = 200' wide
  • In some instances the landing threshold may be relocated or displaced
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    Displaced Threshold:

    

    • A displaced threshold is a threshold located at a point on the runway other than the designated beginning of the runway [ Figure 11 ]
      • Displacement of a threshold usually exists because of obstructions
      • Displacement of a threshold therefore reduces the length of runway available for landings
    • The portion of runway behind a displaced threshold is available for taxi, takeoff, and landing rollout however, it may not be used for runway touchdown
    • Exists usually because of obstructions
    • On runways with a displaced threshold, the beginning of the landing zone is marked by a 10' solid white line
      • White arrows are located along the centerline in the area between the beginning of the runway and displaced threshold
    • Demarcation bar separates the displaced threshold area from a blast pad, stop way, or taxiway that precedes the runway

  • Relocated Runway Threshold:

    • Due to construction, maintenance, or other activities, a threshold may be closed/moved for a varied amount of time
    • When the threshold is relocated, the closed portion of the runway is not available for use by aircraft for takeoff or landing, but it is available for taxi
    • When a threshold is relocated, it closes not only a set portion of the approach end of a runway, but also shortens the length of the opposite direction runway
      • Closure will be noted via Notice to Air Missions (NOTAM) (for example, 10/28 W 900 CLSD), but the method of marking may vary

      Demarcation Bar:

      • Delineates a runway with a displayed threshold from a blast pad, stop-way or taxiway that precedes the runway
      • The demarcation bar is 3' (1m) wide and yellow, since it is not located on the runway

      Chevrons:

      • Used to show pavement areas aligned with the runway that are unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing
      • Chevrons are yellow

      Runway Threshold Bar:

      • Delineates the beginning of the runway that is available for landing when the threshold has been displayed or relocated
      • A 10' (3M) wide bar extends across the width of the runway

      Blast-pad/Stop-way:

      • Referred to as an overrun and may be used as such [ Figure 13 ]
      • Cannot be used for normal operation
      • Allows propeller or jet blasts to safely dissipate

    • Runway Safety Area:

      • The runway safety area (RSA) is a defined surface surrounding the runway prepared, or suitable, for reducing the risk of damage to airplanes in the event of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion from the runway
        • The dimensions of the RSA vary and can be determined by using the criteria contained within AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design, Chapter 3
        • Figure 3-1 in AC 150/5300-13 depicts the RSA
        • Additionally, it provides greater accessibility for firefighting and rescue equipment in emergency situations
        • The lateral boundaries are usually identified by the presence of the runway holding position signs and markings on the adjoining taxiway stubs
        • Aircraft should not enter the RSA without making sure of adequate separation from other aircraft during operations at uncontrolled airports

        Taxiway Markings:

        Centerline Markings:

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        • 
        • Centerline markings provide a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path
        • Ideally, pilots should maintain centerline but be aware, this does not guarantee wingtip clearance of obstacles on either side

        Two Types of Taxiway Centerline Markings:

        Normal Taxiway Centerline:

        • Normal taxiway centerlines consist of a single continuous yellow line, 6 inches (15 cm) to 12 inches (30 cm) in width [ Figure 14 ]

        Enhanced Taxiway Centerline:

        

        • At some airports, mostly the larger commercial service airports, an enhanced taxiway centerline will be used
        • The enhanced taxiway centerline marking consists of a parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the normal taxiway centerline
        • Taxiway centerlines are enhanced for a maximum of 150 feet prior to a runway holding position marking as a warning to pilots that he/she is approaching a runway holding position marking and should prepare to stop unless he/she has been cleared onto or across the runway by ATC [ Figure 15 ]
    • Note that taxiway markings are present on runways to guide pilots off the runway onto a taxiway
      • Taxiway markings are absent at runway intersections to avoid pilots accidentally taxing off one runway onto another

  • Taxiway Edge Markings:

    

    • Taxiway edge markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway; used primarily when the edge of the pavement and taxiway do not correspond

    Two Types of Taxiway Edge Markings:

    Continuous Markings:

    • Consist of a double yellow line, each 6 inches (15cm) in width, separated by 6 inches [ Figure 16 ]
    • These continuous markings delineate areas where aircraft operation is not intended

    Dashed Markings:

    

    • These markings are used when there is an operational need to define the edge of a taxiway or taxilane on a paved surface where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is intended for use by aircraft, e.g., an apron
    • Consist of a broken double yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width, spaced 6 inches (15 cm) apart (edge to edge)
    • These lines are 15' (4.5m) in length with 25' (7.5m) gaps [ Figure 16 ]

Use of Runway Half-way Signs at Unimproved Airports:

• When installed, runway half-way signs provide the pilot with a reference point to judge takeoff acceleration trends
• Assuming that the runway length is appropriate for takeoff (considering runway condition and slope, elevation, aircraft weight, wind, and temperature), typical takeoff acceleration should allow the airplane to reach 70% of lift-off airspeed by the midpoint of the runway
• The "rule of thumb" is that should airplane acceleration not allow the airspeed to reach this value by the midpoint, the takeoff should be aborted, as it may not be possible to liftoff in the remaining runway

"Rule of Thumb" Considerations:

• Airspeed indicators in small airplanes are not required to be evaluated at speeds below stalling, and may not be usable at 70% of liftoff airspeed
• Based on a uniform surface condition
  • Puddles, soft spots, areas of tall and/or wet grass, loose gravel, upslope, winds etc., may impede acceleration or even cause deceleration
  • Even if the airplane achieves 70% of liftoff airspeed by the midpoint, the condition of the remainder of the runway may not allow further acceleration
  • The entire length of the runway should be inspected prior to takeoff to ensure a usable surface
• Applies only to runway required for actual liftoff
  • In the event that obstacles affect the takeoff climb path, appropriate distance must be available after liftoff to accelerate to best angle of climb speed and to clear the obstacles
  • This will, in effect, require the airplane to accelerate to a higher speed by midpoint, particularly if the obstacles are close to the end of the runway
  • In addition, this technique does not take into account the effects of upslope or tailwinds on takeoff performance
  • These factors will also require greater acceleration than normal and, under some circumstances, prevent takeoff entirely
• Use of this "rule of thumb" does not alleviate the pilot's responsibility to comply with applicable Federal Aviation Regulations, the limitations and performance data provided in the FAA approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), or, in the absence of an FAA approved AFM, other data provided by the aircraft manufacturer
• In addition to their use during takeoff, runway half-way signs offer the pilot increased awareness of his or her position along the runway during landing operations
  • Note that there is no standardized symbology for a runway halfway sign [ Figure 48 ]

Arresting Systems:

• Certain military aircraft that are properly equipped can be rapidly stopped on a runway
• Done with cables supported by rubber donuts
• Solid yellow circles (10' diameter) 30' on center show location of cables
• Engineered materials arresting systems (EMAS) constructed of high energy absorbing materials
• Crush under the weight of commercial aircraft to slow them
• More can be found on the aircraft arresting systems page

Security Identification Display Areas:

• Security Identification Display Areas, or SIDAs, are limited access areas that require a badge issued in accordance with procedures in CFR 49 Part 1542
  • A SIDA can include the Air Operations Area (AOA), e.g., aircraft movement area or parking area, or a Secured Area, such as where commercial passengers enplane
  • The AOA may not be a SIDA, but a Secured Area is always a SIDA. Movement through or into a SIDA is prohibited without authorization and proper identification being displayed
  • If you are unsure of the location of a SIDA, contact the airport authority for additional information
  • Airports that have a SIDA will have a description and map detailing boundaries and pertinent features available
• Pilots or passengers without proper identification that are observed entering a SIDA may be reported to the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) or airport security and may be subject to civil and criminal fines and prosecution
  • Pilots are advised to brief passengers accordingly
  • Report suspicious activity to the TSA by calling AOPA's Airport Watch Program, 866-427-3287
  • 49 CFR 1540 requires each individual who holds an airman certificate, medical certificate, authorization, or license issued by the FAA to present it for inspection upon a request from TSA

Use of Runways/Declared Distances:

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• Airport proprietors are responsible for taking the lead in local aviation noise control
• Accordingly, they may propose specific noise abatement plans to the FAA which
• If approved, these planns are applied in the form of Formal or Informal Runway Use Programs for noise abatement purposes
  • ATC will assign the runway/s most nearly aligned with the wind when 5 knots or more, or the "calm wind" runway when less than 5 knots unless:
    • Use of another runway is operationally advantageous, or
    • A Runway Use Program is in effect
  • Note Tailwind and crosswind considerations take precedence over delay/capacity considerations, and noise abatement operations/procedures
• If a pilot prefers to use a runway different from that specified, the pilot is expected to advise ATC. ATC may honor such requests as soon as is operationally practicable
  • ATC will advise pilots when the requested runway is noise sensitive
  • When use of a runway other than the one assigned is requested, pilot cooperation is encouraged to preclude disruption of traffic flows or the creation of conflicting patterns
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• Declared Distances:

  • Declared distances for a runway represent the maximum distances available and suitable for meeting takeoff and landing distance performance requirements
    • These distances are determined in accordance with FAA runway design standards by adding to the physical length of paved runway any clearway or stopway and subtracting from that sum any lengths necessary to obtain the standard runway safety areas, runway object free areas, or runway protection zones
    • As a result of these additions and subtractions, the declared distances for a runway may be more or less than the physical length of the runway as depicted on aeronautical charts and related publications, or available in electronic navigation databases provided by either the U.S. Government or commercial companies

    Takeoff Run Available (TORA):

    • The runway length declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off
      • The TORA is typically the physical length of the runway, but it may be shorter than the runway length if necessary to satisfy runway design standards
      • For example, the TORA may be shorter than the runway length if a portion of the runway must be used to satisfy runway protection zone requirements

      Takeoff Distance Available (TODA):

      • The takeoff run available plus the length of any remaining runway or clearway beyond the far end of the takeoff run available
        • The TODA is the distance declared available for satisfying takeoff distance requirements for airplanes where the certification and operating rules and available performance data allow for the consideration of a clearway in takeoff performance computations
        • The length of any available clearway will be included in the TODA published in the entry for that runway end within the Chart Supplement U.S.

        Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA):

        • The runway plus stopway length declared available and suitable for the acceleration and deceleration of an airplane aborting a takeoff
          • The ASDA may be longer than the physical length of the runway when a stopway has been designated available by the airport operator, or it may be shorter than the physical length of the runway if necessary to use a portion of the runway to satisfy runway design standards; for example, where the airport operator uses a portion of the runway to achieve the runway safety area requirement
          • ASDA is the distance used to satisfy the airplane accelerate-stop distance performance requirements where the certification and operating rules require accelerate-stop distance computations
          • NOTE-The length of any available stopway will be included in the ASDA published in the Chart Supplement U.S.'s entry for that runway end

          Landing Distance Available (LDA):

          

          • The runway length declared available and suitable for a landing airplane
            • The LDA may be less than the physical length of the runway or the length of the runway remaining beyond a displaced threshold if necessary to satisfy runway design standards; for example, where the airport operator uses a portion of the runway to achieve the runway safety area requirement
            • Although some runway elements (such as stopway length and clearway length) may be available information, pilots must use the declared distances determined by the airport operator and not attempt to independently calculate declared distances by adding those elements to the reported physical length of the runway
      • The airplane operating rules and/or the airplane operating limitations establish minimum distance requirements for takeoff and landing and are based on performance data supplied in the Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot's Operating Handbook
        • The minimum distances required for takeoff and landing obtained either in planning prior to takeoff or in performance assessments conducted at the time of landing must fall within the applicable declared distances before the pilot can accept that runway for takeoff or landing
      • Runway design standards may impose restrictions on the amount of runway available for use in takeoff and landing that are not apparent from the reported physical length of the runway or from runway markings and lighting
        • The runway elements of Runway Safety Area (RSA), Runway Object Free Area (ROFA), and Runway Protection Zone (RPZ) may reduce a runway's declared distances to less than the physical length of the runway at geographically constrained airports
        • When considering the amount of runway available for use in takeoff or landing performance calculations, the declared distances published for a runway must always be used in lieu of the runway's physical length
      • While some runway elements associated with declared distances may be identifiable through runway markings or lighting (for example, a displaced threshold or a stopway), the individual declared distance limits are not marked or otherwise identified on the runway
        • An aircraft is not prohibited from operating beyond a declared distance limit during the takeoff, landing, or taxi operation provided the runway surface is appropriately marked as usable runway
        • EXAMPLE:
          • The declared LDA for runway 9 must be used when showing compliance with the landing distance requirements of the applicable airplane operating rules and/or airplane operating limitations or when making a before landing performance assessment. The LDA is less than the physical runway length, not only because of the displaced threshold, but also because of the subtractions necessary to meet the RSA beyond the far end of the runway. However, during the actual landing operation, it is permissible for the airplane to roll beyond the unmarked end of the LDA
          • The declared ASDA for runway 9 must be used when showing compliance with the accelerate-stop distance requirements of the applicable airplane operating rules and/or airplane operating limitations. The ASDA is less than the physical length of the runway due to subtractions necessary to achieve the full RSA requirement. However, in the event of an aborted takeoff, it is permissible for the airplane to roll beyond the unmarked end of the ASDA as it is brought to a full-stop on the remaining usable runway

  Conclusion:

  • It is important for you to know the meanings of the signs, markings, and lights that are used on airports as surface navigational aids
  • Ineffective, incorrect, or confusing markings should be reported in at least one of three ways:
    • To the airport operator;
    • To the FAA regional airport division, and/or;
    • Entered into the Aviation Safety Reporting Program
    • Taxiway edge markings are present whenever there is a need to separate the taxiway from a pavement that is not intended for aircraft use or to delineate the edge of the taxiway
    • Taxiways may also have shoulder markings and holding position markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS) critical areas, and taxiway/taxiway intersection markings
    • Safety Quiz: Airport Signs and Markings
    • To learn more about airport rubber removal, see: Why 10,000 pounds of rubber are stripped from runways

    Wrong Surface Landings/Takeoffs

    • Familiarize pilots with Chart Supplements, Airport Diagrams, NOTAMs, and other preflight resources
      • Use the FAA's From the Flight Deck videos! www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/videos/

      References:

      • AOPA - Runway Safety Flashcards
      • Federal Aviation Administration - Pilot/Controller Glossary
      • Advisory Circular (150/5340-1) Standards for Airport Markings
      • Advisory Circular (150/5390-2D) Heliport Design
      • Advisory Circular (150/5300-13) Airport Design
      • Advisory Circular (150/5340-18) Standards for Airport Sign Systems
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-1) General
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-2) Airport Pavement Markings
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-3) Runway Markings
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-4) Taxiway Markings
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-5) Holding Position Markings
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-6) Other Markings
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-7) Airport Signs
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-8) Mandatory Instruction Signs
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-9) Location Signs
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-10) Direction Signs
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-11) Destination Signs
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-12) Information Signs
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-13) Runway Distance Remaining Signs
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-14) Aircraft Arresting Systems
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (2-3-15) Security Identifications Display Area (Airport Ramp Area)
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (4-3-6) Use of Runways/Declared Distances
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (4-3-20) Exiting the Runway After Landing
      • Aeronautical Information Manual (7-6-8) Use of Runway Half-way Signs at Unimproved Airports
      • AOPA Air Safety Institute - Runway Safety Flashcards
      • AOPA - Safety Quiz: Airport Signs and Markings
      • AOPA - Runway Markings
      • Bold Method - ILS Critical Area: When Should You Hold Short?
      • JO 7110.65Z (3-7-5) Precision Approach Critical Area
      • FAA InFO (12007) Instrument Landing System (ILS) Fluctuations Caused by Movement through the ILS Critical Area
      • International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
      • Gizmodo - A beginner's Guide to the Secret Language of Airport Runways
      • Federal Aviation Administration - Pilots Guide to Airport Signs and Markings